[Intro. to Psy Course Note] Ch 6

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Conditioning and Learning

Some types of learning

  • Learning
  • Associative learning
    • 2 types of associative learning: classical conditioning / operant conditioning
    • Reinforcement: any event that increases the probability that a response will recur
    • Antecedents: events that precede a response. more important in classical conditioning
    • Consequences: effects that follow a response. more important in operant conditioning
  • Cognitive learning

Classical conditioning

  • Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, the Russian physiologist who studied digestion by presenting dogs with meat powder and measuring salivation
  • Neutral stimulus 中性刺激: stimulus that does not evoke a response
  • Conditioned stimulus 條件刺激: stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
  • Unconditioned stimulus 無條件刺激: stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response
  • Unconditioned response: innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
  • Conditioned response: learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
  • Unlike Pavlov, many psychologists think that classical conditioning involves cognition because it is related to information that might aid survival
    • Informational view: organisms look for associations among events
    • Expectancy: expectation about how events are interconnected
  • principles of classical conditioning
    • Acquisition: training period in conditioning when a response is strengthened
    • Higher-order conditioning 高層次制約: a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning; the CS is used as though it were a UCS
  • Extinction: weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement
  • Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction
  • Generalization and discrimination
    • Stimulus generalization 刺激類化
    • Stimulus discrimination 刺激區辨
  • Classical conditioning in humans
    • Phobia
    • Conditioned emotional response (CER) 制約情緒反應
    • Vicarious classical conditioning 替代古典制約: learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions
  • Overcoming phobias
    • Systematic desensitization: decreasing fear or anxiety by exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

Operant conditioning (Instrumental Learning)

  • Learning is based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences
  • Law of effect (Edward Thorndike): the probability of a response is altered by the effect it has, so responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not
  • Operant reinforcer: any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring
  • Acquiring an operant response
    • Conditioning chamber (Skinner box): 關動物做實驗
    • Animals actively emit behavior; consequences influence how frequently behavior occurs
    • Response-contingent reinforcement 反應依仗強化: reinforcement given only after a desired response occurs
  • timing of reinforcement
    • Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response
    • Response chaining: a linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement
    • Superstitious behaviors: behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement (i.e., the timing is right), even though they are not necessary (動物可能發展出奇怪的儀式化反應；它可能輕敲自己的頭，轉圈子，以後腳站立，或是做一系列當餵食機開啟時，他正在做的行為。這些儀式化的行為，我們把它們歸類為迷信行為，因為動物看起來似乎相信它所做的行為使得食物丸出現，因為在這種情境裡獎賞與動物的行為無關，我們將它稱為非連鎖增強作用)
  • Shaping: 海洋公園訓練海狗那樣
  • Operant extinction
    • When learned responses are NOT reinforced, they gradually fade away
    • Negative attention seeking: using misbehavior to gain attention
    • 消除不良行為的方法 -> 消弱，讓個體失去增強物，以降低不良行為發生頻率
  • Reinforcement contingencies 強化依仗性
    • Reinforcer 強化物
    • Reinforcement 強化 (動作本身): increases probability of that behavior
    • 正強化: behavior is followed by delivery of appetitve stimulus
    • 負強化: behavior is followed by removal of aversive stimulusk
  • Punishment
    • Punisher 跟上面一樣概念
    • Punishment -> decreases probability of that behavior
    • 正懲罰: behavior is followed by delivery of aversive stimulus
    • 負懲罰: behavior is followed by removal of appetitive stimulus
    • Downside of punishment
      • Aversive stimulus 嫌惡刺激: 不舒服的 stimulus
      • Escape learning: learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus
      • Avoidance learning
  • Stimulus control
    • Operant stimulus generalization 刺激類化
    • Operant stimulus discrimination 刺激區辨
  • Operant reinforcers
    • Primary reinforcer 初級強化物: unlearned and natural; satisfies physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex)
      • Intracranial stimulation (ICS) 顱內刺激: natural primary reinforcer; involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure centers”
    • Secondary reinforcer 次級強化物: learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise); gains reinforcing properties by associating with a primary reinforcer
    • Token reinforcer 代幣強化物: tangible secondary reinforcer
    • Social reinforcer 社會強化物: attention and approval provided by other people
  • Reinforcement concepts
    • Schedules of reinforcement
    • Continuous reinforcement
    • Partial reinforcement
      • Fixed ratio schedule 定比強化: a set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer
      • Variable ratio schedule 不定比強化: varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer
      • Fixed interval schedule 定時強化
      • Variable interval schedule 不定時強化
    • Partial reinforcement effect 部分強化效應: responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction

Cognitive learning

  • Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating
  • Latent learning 潛伏學習: occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated (or is hidden) until reinforcement is provided
  • Cognitive map 認知地圖: internal images or other mental representations of an area (maze, city, etc.) that underlie an ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal
  • Feedback
  • Learning aids
    • Programmed instruction: learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback
    • Computer-assisted instruction (CAI): learning aided by computer-presented information and exercises
    • Serious games: CAI presented in a game format
    • Educational simulations: imaginary situations or “microworlds” that simulate real-world problems
  • Discovery learning
    • Rote learning 機械式學習
    • Base on insight & understanding
  • Observational learning
    • Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions
    • Model 模範
  1. Self-management skills
  • Premack principle
    • Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response (e.g., no TV watching until you finish your homework)
    • Self-recording: self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies
  • How to break bad habits
    • Alternate behavior: try to get the same reinforcement with a new response
    • Break up response chains: scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired response
    • Reduce cues and antecedents: try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit
    • Use covert sensitization and reward
      • Covert sensitization 隱藏式敏感化: the use of aversive imagery to reduce undesired behavior
      • Covert reinforcement 隱藏式強化: the use of positive imagery to reinforce desired behavior