[Intro. to Psy Course Note] Ch 3
Human Development
How do heredity and environment affect development throughout life ?
- Heredity: DNA, genes
- Dominant gene 顯性
- Recessive gene 隱性
顯性 隱性 顯性 顯性 顯性 隱性 顯性 隱性 - Polygenic traits: traits or properties that are influenced by many genes working in combination
- Epigenetics 表關遺傳
- Maturation 成熟: physical growth and development of the body
- Environment
- Sum of external conditions that affect a person, especially the effects of learning
- Congenital(先天) problem: birth defect 天生缺陷
- Teratogens 畸胎原
- Anything capable of directly causing birth defect (菸、輻射、毒品、麻醉藥)
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
- Temperament 氣質: the inherited physical “core” of personality
- Easy children 好養育小孩: relaxed, agreeable
- Difficult children 難養育小孩: moody, intense, easily angered
- Slow-to-warm-up 慢吞吞小孩: restrained, unexpressive, shy
- Remaining children 其他的
- Parents <=> children 氣質會交互影響
- Sensitive periods 敏感期: a period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences; also, a time when certain events must occur for normal development to take place
- Adolescence and adulthood
- Adolescence: culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood
- Emerging adulthood 成年萌發期: a socially tolerated period of extended adolescence
- Subjective well-being 主觀幸福感: general life satisfaction combined with frequent positive emotions and relatively few negative emotions
- Ageism 年齡歧視: discrimination or prejudice based on a person’s age
- A tremendous diversity exists among the elderly
- Five basic reactions to death
- Denial and isolation
- Anger (asking, “Why me ?”)
- Bargaining (with God)
- Depression
- Acceptance (if death is not sudden, many will finally accept death calmly)
What are some major milestones of physical development ?
- Motor development in infancy
- Increased muscular control occurs in patterns
- Cenphalocaudal (首尾??): from head to toe
- Proximodistal (遠近??): from center of the body to the extremities
- Increased muscular control occurs in patterns
- Sensory development in infancy
How does emotional development proceed ?
- Early social development
- Attachment (依附理論): strange situation test 陌生情境測試
- Attachment style
- secure
- insecure-avoidant
- insecure-ambivalent
- Promoting secure attachment
- Warm family atmosphere
What are the typical psychosocial tasks and dilemmas through the life span ?
- Erik Erikson: eight developmental stages confront a person with new developmental tasks or psychosocial dilemmas
- Developmental tasks: any skill that must be mastered, or personal change that must take place, for optimal development
- Psychosocial dilemmas: conflict between personal impulses and the social world
- Stage 1: Trust v.s. Mistrust (0 ~ 1 years old)
- Stage 2: Autonomy(自主) v.s. Shame and Doubt (1 ~ 3 years old)
- Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause the latter one
- Stage 3: Initiative v.s. Guilt(罪惡) (3 ~ 5 years old)
- Guilt: may occur if parents criticize, discourage their children
- Stage 4: Industry(勤勞) v.s. Inferiority(自卑) (6 ~ 12 years old)
- Stage 5: Identity(認同) v.s. Confusion(角色混淆) (adolescence)
- Who am I ?
- Stage 6: Intimacy v.s. Isolation (young adulthood)
- Stage 7: Generativity v.s. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
- Stage 8: Integrity v.s. Despair (late adulthood)
- Focus on parenting: parenting styles
Parent's Responsiveness Accepting
Responsive
Child-centeredRejecting
Unresponsive
Parent-centeredParent's Demandingness Demanding
Controlling民主型 權威型 Undemanding
Low in control溺愛型 忽視型 - Five flavors of parenting
- Native American: 土生土長美式很棒棒、愛與關懷、開放
- Africa American: 忠誠、尊敬長者
- Hispanic: 好嚴格
- Asian American: 對 elder children 比較嚴格，要有遠大目標
- Arab American: 順從、尊敬長者
How do we develop morals ?
- Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development
- Preconventional moral reasoning 道德成規前期: moral thinking based on consequences on one’s actions (7~10 years old)
- 避免懲罰
- 贏得獎賞、強調報酬
- Conventional moral reasoning 道德循規期: reasoning based one desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values (10~16 years old)
- 贏得讚許、避免被反對
- 被”法律秩序”規範
- Postconventional moral reasoning 道德自律期: (16~ years old)
- Preconventional moral reasoning 道德成規前期: moral thinking based on consequences on one’s actions (7~10 years old)
How do we acquire language ?
- Cooing 發出咕咕聲 (6~8 weeks)
- Babble 牙牙學語: some simple consonants (7 months)
- Single-word stage
- Telegraphic speech 電報式語言 (e.g. want cookie)
- After age 2, language development accelerates quickly
How do we learn to think ?
- Assimilation 同化
- Accommodation 適應
- Piaget’s stage of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor stage 感覺運思期 (0~2 years)
- Object permanence 物體不滅
- Preoperational stage 前運思期 (2~7 years)
- 重視靜止的訊息，無法考慮轉換的過程(果汁問題 => 液面高所以果汁較多)
- Egocentric: 無法從不同位置看事物 (三山問題)
- Concrete operational stage 具體運思期 (7~11 years)
- 可逆
- 守恆
- Formal operational stage 形式運思期 (11~ years)
- Sensorimotor stage 感覺運思期 (0~2 years)